Evolution and Stages of Development of Self-Managed teams Essay

One of the most effective means of extracting the unutilized portion of the healthcare industry has been the self-managed team. This has been a recently identified area, and healthcare organizations are beginning to use it for their advantage in improving the health outcomes of the patients. Self-managed teams are also known as ‘self-directed teams’, ‘natural teams’, or ‘semiautonomous teams’. They are a group of employees that have to do daily responsibilities along with managing themselves. They would perform several tasks including managing work responsibilities, planning, problem solving, decision-making, scheduling the work, etc. The self-management teams would be having several characteristics including interacting with other working groups, responsibility providing the services, performing interdependent activities and managing the operations of the team (Schrubb, 1992 & Silverman, 1996). The basic evolution of a self-managed team occurs in five stages. Zawacki and Norman framed this in the year 1994. With a different situation arising due to the workflow, the team can revert to an earlier situation. A self-managed team would be having several roles to play with relation to patient care, and each of these roles would be in one of the seven stages of development. It is important to note that each of these roles played by the team members, would be in any of the seven stages of team development. The stages of self-managed team development include: – In the first stage, when the team is new and do not know the skills and the knowledge of the work, a leader who is familiar with the work processes and competent with the work skills, would be providing supervision and would train the staff to perform the daily tasks. The leader once actually trains the staff members to perform the tasks, slowly shifts his role from a supervisor to a manager. He would now be slowly managing the activities of the team. Slowly the manager would begin to coordinate all the activities of the team. He/she would be training the staff members to perform tasks that would involve leading the lower staff members. Most of the members of the team take up certain responsibilities concerned with management. The manager acts as an interface between the self-managed team and the administration or the portfolio management. Slowly the manager of the team becomes an additional resource that would not only perform the tasks that the members of the group would be performing, but would also be invoked in interacting with the administration (Silverman, 1996). It is important that the organization moves thought all these stages in the self-management development process. The specific reasons for having a self-management development process include: – To ensure that the patient is satisfied with the treatment To ensure that the team members get the feedback directly from the customers rather than from the managers and the supervisors. This would help the team to continuously develop over a period of time. The customer satisfaction levels would improve with time. To ensure that further responsibilities and roles for the staff members are incorporated in an appropriate manner. The organization, which has dynamic objectives, is able to function better if self-managed teams are existent. The managers and the supervisors, who play an important role guiding the staff members, can be utilized to engage in growth-related activities of the origination (Silverman, 1996).

Teen Suicide and Bullying

Bullying is a worldwide problem that can be linked to teen suicide. The third leading cause of death in youth is suicide, which results in nearly 4,400 deaths per year (Centers for Disease Control, 2012). At least half of these deaths are caused by bullying. Although bullying is still seen by many to be a normal part of growing up, it is a severe problem that leads to many negative effects, including suicide. Unfortunately, there is not a definitive solution to this problem.However, there are multiple ways to help teens who are contemplating suicide due to bullying: seeking immediate medical help, encouraging teens to talk, parents keeping communication open, and by parents communicating with school authorities. Bullying is a form of abuse that is displayed toward the victim which forms an unhealthy relationship. This relationship consists of the bully having continual control of the victim’s life for an extended period of time. It gives the bully a sense of empowerment that t hey continue to feed off of.This is much different from school aged aggression that typically has a one-time occurrence, such as fighting or teasing between friends. Conversely, bullying can lead to suicide. Bully related suicide can be connected to any type of bullying, whether it is physical bullying, emotional bullying, cyber bullying, sexting, or even the circulating of suggestive photos of a person. Sadly, over 14 percent of high school students have considered suicide and almost seven percent have actually attempted it. The power obtained by the bully over the victim can be devastating and can lead to many negative effects.Bullying can lead to poor mental health such as depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation. Nearly 160,000 children stay home from school every day due to fear of torment by other students. This causes the students grades to drop and adds to the victim’s sense of failure. These effects can become so debilitating that the victim may turn to suicide as their way of ending the internal pain. Emotional pain felt by the victim can become so overwhelming that they believe the only way out is through suicide. They may feel as if no one cares or that it would be pointless to reach out to someone because it might even make things worse.Sadly, many times victims feel that they are alone and no one could possibly understand what they are going through. In the case of Amanda Todd, she was bullied and ridiculed at school and online to the point where she felt she could no longer live. Unfortunately, she experienced verbal, physical, and emotional pain at the hands of her peers including people she believed liked her. She was tortured on a daily basis and felt there was no way out. Amanda changed schools as an attempt to end the torment. Unfortunately, as in many cases, the bullying followed her.Amanda attempted suicide on a couple of occasions. She tried reaching out by posting a video on YouTube telling her story. Sadly, a week later she co mmitted suicide. Amanda Todd was a victim to one of the cruelest forms of abuse that is happening today all over the world. Could her suicide have been prevented? According to reports, many of Amanda’s peers did not notice any signs of this struggle. However, she cried out for help not only through her video posted on the internet, but well before that by her multiple attempts of suicide.It may have been possible to save her life if there were more awareness brought to her community on bullying and suicide. If people knew what signs to look for and would have noticed the red flags just from sheer knowledge, Amanda Todd may have received the help she wanted and so badly needed. Although there is no definitive solution to the problem of teen suicide from bullying, there are several ways to prevent a majority of this from happening. One extremely important way to help a teen who is suicidal is to immediately seek medical attention.Doctors and medical professionals are able to fi nd problems that others cannot see. They provide hope for teens contemplating ending their lives. Medical professionals are able to diagnose underlying conditions that are typically found in youth who are at risk for suicidal tendencies. Most mental health disorders, such as depression, can be treated. Not only can these professionals diagnose and treat illnesses but they can also provide teens and parents with resources and useful information. Another great way to prevent teen suicide is to encourage them to talk.Suppressing thoughts and feelings, typically makes things worse. Therefore, getting teens to open up and talk is a great way for them to relieve their burdened hearts. Having them verbalize their thoughts and feelings helps them and others to have a better understanding of what they are going through. Likewise, when a teen is being bullied it is important that they express how they have been hurt. It creates an awareness of the problem which can lead to finding a solution. Sometimes, when a teen is thinking about suicide, what they really want is someone to listen to them.They just want to know that they are not alone. One of the best things a parent can do is keep the lines of communication open with their children. It becomes increasingly important throughout the teen years as they experience many changes such as emotional, physical and hormonal. Communication between parent and child is crucial for the child to feel comfortable opening up to them and discussing any problem they may be having. Being involved allows this team to identify the existence of bullying and suicidal thoughts along with other problems.Connor and Rueter (2006) found that a warm and supportive relationship, especially with the father, shielded a teen from emotional distress and suicidal tendencies. Most importantly, communication and openness can be a deterrent to suicide. When a teen communicates that they are being bullied it is helpful for parents to discuss it with school authorities stop existing problems. This is another way to help prevent teen suicide due to bullying. Since a majority of bullying takes place on or near school campuses, it is the school’s responsibility along with the parents to take action in addressing situations as such.School authorities can help monitor a teen that is in distress and offer great resources to help solve the issues they may facing. By parents communicating with the teen’s school, they can share their ideas and find what works best for the community and their students to stop bullying and prevent teen suicide. Bullying is a major problem happening to teens all over the world. Although there is not a definitive solution to bullying and the connection to teen suicide, there are many preventive measures that can be taken. Seeking immediate medical help for teens who want to commit suicide can be life changing.Encouraging teens to talk will allow them to express their thoughts and feelings instead of internalizing them. Likewise, parents can help prevent teen suicide by keeping the lines of communication open. It lets teens take comfort in knowing they have someone to talk to. When bullying and thoughts of suicide become a part of a teen’s life, it is important that the parent speaks to school authorities. This enables the school and parents to team up against the problems. Anyone can play a part in saving a life by working together to prevent teen suicide from bullying.

Negligence Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Negligence Law - Essay Example Stevenson.4 This is the seminal case which changed the nature of duty. In this case, the plaintiff found a slug in her ginger beer and sued the proprietor of the store who sold this. The justice stated that duty would be broadly defined, in that anybody who might be harmed by the tortfeasor are people to whom the tortfeasor owes a duty. Therefore, privity is not required. Capraro v. Dickman5 expanded on the Donoghue analysis, stating that duty of care is required when there is foreseeable harm, proximity between the parties and that holding the tortfeasor liable would be reasonable and just. Breach is the next element that needs to be proved. Basically, negligence turns on whether or not the duty of care is breached. According to Bolton v. Stone6 states that the injury must be foreseeable for there to be a breach. In that case, the plaintiff was hit by a cricket ball. However, it was not foreseeable that a cricket ball would fly out of the arena and hit a remote person, therefore, th e injury was not foreseeable and the defendants were held not be negligent and did not breach a duty of care. Overseas Tankship v. Morts Dock and Engineering Co Ltd7 also illustrates this point. In Overseas, the defendants were allowing oil to spill out on water, and they were also sending sparks into the oil on the water. The oil ignited. However, the Overseas court held that the it was not foreseeable for water to ignite, therefore the defendants were not held liable. Causation is the next element. There is direct causation, which means that the defendant directly caused injury, and proximate causation. In proximate causation, the tortfeasor may not have directly caused the injury, but the injury was related to the tortfeasor's actions. defendant’s actions. Courts will classically use the â€Å"but for† test for causation, which means that, but for the defendant's negligence, the injury would not have occurred. Several cases may illustrate how this is applied, or not applied, as the case may be. Courts will not apply hold a defendant negligent if the injury would have occurred anyway, even if there was no negligence. For instance, in the case of South Australia Asset Management Corp. v. York Montague Ltd., a classic example of this type of injury was stated – a mountaineer is about to go on a difficult climb, but is worried about his knee. His doctor negligently examines the mountain climber and tells him he is fit to climb. The climber goes on his climb and is injured. But for the negligent medical examination the climber would not have been on the mountain climb. However, the actual injury has nothing to do with the knee – perhaps the climber is struck by a falling rock on the climb. In this situation, the doctor isn't liable for negligence, even though the climber would never have been injured but for the doctor's negligence. Another example of injury or death which might be held to be result of negligence, but was deemed not t o be the proximate cause of the death is the case of Barnett v Chelsea & Kensington Hospital Management Committee. 8 In this case, a man went to an emergency room but was told to go home and call his doctor. He died of arsenic poisoning. It was held,

History and theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

History and theory - Essay Example Las Vegas and Dubai represent two hot points in the global tourism map. These two desert cities have grown from dusty outposts to globally known tourist destinations over a short period of time. Las Vegas is globally recognised as the entertainment capital of the world and this tourist destination is prominent for its casino hotels and related entertainment activities. Dubai is also a famous global destination that attracts visitors on the strength of wonderful shopping experiences and other ancient and modern attractions. Despite political, economical, social, and environmental differences, Las Vegas and Dubai uphold prominent positions as the most attractive tourist destinations of the world, for these two cities   have notably contributed to their home countries’ GDP even in the midst of the recent   global financial crisis.  This paper will evaluate the tourism sector of Las Vegas and Dubai and explore further scope of tourism development in these cities. Overview of tourism in Las Vegas and Dubai Las Vegas witnessed unprecedented positive changes in its tourism industry throughout the second half of the 20th century. During this time, this city was one of a few global tourist destinations that offered entertainments like casino gambling. ... The proliferation of the gaming industry over the last few decades forced Las Vegas tourism sector to strengthen its market position. In spite of these challenges, Las Vegas still remains to be a hot choice for tourists across the globe. Official data indicate that 39,727,022 people visited Las Vegas in 2012 (Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority). While analyzing the latest financial reports, it seems that the region’s tourism sector has begun to recover from the global financial crisis. According to the financial data released by the Gaming Control Board, the city’s revenues on the Strip increased by 3.6% to reach $580.7 million in October 2012 as compared to the revenues realized in the same period a year ago (Higgins 2012). In addition, the region’s tourism industry produced nearly 16,000 jobs in leisure and hospitality sectors since the worst of the recent global recession in November 2009 (Rossi 2011). Stratosphere, the tallest observation tower in th e Western US, is one of the major attractions of Las Vegas. It offers spectacular views and amusement rides like SkyJump, Insanity, Big Shot, and X-Scream (Las Vegas Sun). The fountains at Bellagio is another well known attraction of the Las Vegas Strip. The dancing waters choreographed to popular music greatly amuse visitors. Another prominent attraction is Las Vegas Strip’s Fashion Show Mall, one of the largest enclosed malls in the United States. It contains many stores, restaurants, seven flagship department stores, fashion runway, and other facilities. The city’s 3.9-mile Monorail system gives a wonderful transport experience to visitors. This Monorail system is the only privately owned public

Is Global Warming Skepticism just Smoke and Mirrors Essay

Is Global Warming Skepticism just Smoke and Mirrors - Essay Example Those who argue that global warming skepticism is just smoke and mirrors contend that global warming is very much real. They further insist that global warming is a phenomenon caused by man’s destructive and indiscriminate activities. They cite greenhouse gas emissions as one of the primary causes of global warming. Studies conducted by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration established that computer models based on man-made emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) matched present manifestations of changes in the Earth’s climate (Henderson, 2005). Greenhouse gas emissions come primarily from our oil-powered vehicles and industries, and these emissions are ultimately causing the greenhouse effect responsible for climate change. Chlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride are compounds created by man. The chlorofluorocarbons are used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners, and these are also released in the manufacturing of alumin um. Hydrofluorocarbons are a by-product of foam and other manufacturing processes. These carbon emissions are trapped in our atmosphere for prolonged periods of time; and while they are trapped in the Earth’s atmosphere, they also trap the sun’s heat. They damage the ozone layer that protects the earth from the ultraviolet rays of the sun (Ygoy, 2007). And as more industries are being developed, more pollutants are expected to be introduced into our environment to further contribute to global warming. Many environmentalists fiercely argue against global warming skepticism because there are various scientific proofs indicating the veracity of this phenomenon. Since the start of the 20th century, the global surface temperature has increased by 0.74C.

Please See Order Instructions Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Please See Order Instructions - Research Paper Example The purpose of this paper is to present a detailed analysis of the company. It is important to consider the changes that have occurred over the years so the paper also discusses the basic changes that have occurred throughout the previous years. Of course, it is equally pertinent to consider the situation in the market place because the market determines our progress. Therefore, the paper also deals with the significance of the market in relation to the company. The falling status of the company is a well known fact by now. To some extent the company’s inefficiency is itself responsible for this current state of the company. However, this paper also reiterates how the exogenous factors, not directly under the control of the company; have led the company to its present state. The latter part of the essay deals with a personal assessment of how critical the situation is for the company. Also, the measures that are deemed necessary at this point in time are highlighted so that the important propositions could be understood. Overall, the paper will help get an idea of the current situation and would inform about the steps that need to be taken to save the company from bankruptcy. Before moving onto the discussion of why the current situation has arisen, a brief overview of the history of the company in the last few years is necessary.

Pediatric radiography discussion Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Pediatric radiography discussion - Case Study Example age receptor is then placed on the holder mount and the device is able to rotate the image in the posterior and the anterior positions without actually moving the child. The digital version has the image recorded in the flat panel detector, hence it does not require a cassette holder. When stockinettes are used, they are to be made in a tubular manner. The device comes in various sizes, where the 3 inch one is recommended for the small infants, whereas the 4 inch one is recommended for larger children. The device should be doubled and placed on the patient’s arms to cover the arms up to the shoulders. A part from being used to immobilize the arms, it is also used to act as a pillow. There are several types of gentle tapes that are used for surgical and immobilization procedures and sensitive skins. Adhesive tapes should not be used as it may show on the radiograph and create artifact that could obscure the anatomic parts of interest. Some patients also have a reaction to the adhesive tape. Adhesive tapes can also injure the fragile skin of the infants. Therefore, the tape should be twisted so that the adhesive surface is not against the skin. Gauze pads can also be placed between the skin and adhesive tape so that the ape is used effectively. Most of the sandbags are used as weights or immobilization devices for bigger children. These bags should be made specifically for immobilization of pediatric patients so as to be effective for this purpose. A strong canvas type material and children’s coarse sterilized playing sand should be used. The coarse sand is usually recommended so that, in case the bag can break open, the sand becomes more easily cleaned up, hence the chances of causing artifacts on the radiograph s are minimized. Two sandbags are recommended, but the sandbags should not be overfilled with sand since this will make the bag stiff. The bag needs to be pliable enough to mold to the part when placed on the child’s limb. During pediatric

Forms and Substance Dualism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Forms and Substance Dualism - Essay Example If, conversely, dualism can be convincingly maintained, then our evidence obtained from studies of the brain would simply not suffice in gaining any form of insight into the human mind. Dualism is a logical necessity: sustained as a question that does not need to be answered as it can be fulfilled a priori, owing to the fact that humans have the ability to seek introspection regularly. (Almog, 129-34) Indeed, we experience the separation between our body and mind, which would support the notion that they are separate entities and empirical evidence is not required to prove such a concept. However, this does not mean that dualistic theory is foolproof: for example, can our experience be enough to prove such a concept Indeed, many philosophers are not in favor of dualistic ontology. The first classical representation of dualism can be recognized in Plato's work; more specifically originating in The Phaedo. Interestingly, in dualism, 'mind' is contrasted with 'body', but in different historical periods, different aspects of the mind have been the center of attention. For example, in the classical period it was the intellect of the mind, which was considered to be the crux of what separated us from the physical. However, from Descartes onwards, the opposition to materialism came from our apparent 'consciousness' and experience of 'sensation'. The emphasis on intellect is certainly echoed in Plato's work: as he believed (as did many other Greeks) that the body was a prison for the intellectual soul. Indeed Plato believed that the true substances are not physical bodies, which are ephemeral, but the eternal Forms of which bodies are imperfect copies. He came up with the idea of a realm of "Forms" and said that intellect was immaterial, for it does not last you, the refore Forms are immaterial, and thus intellect must link to those that it apprehends. He then continued to say that such a link forced the soul to want to leave the body to enter a realm of Forms. In his later writings, The Republic, Plato furthered his ideas on Forms and the soul; he claimed that not only was the soul the true form but belonged to a higher status within reality than the body did, and that the soul was a separate, immortal substance. Plato's study of dualism in The Phaedo was indeed complex, and more a metaphysical study regarding the imprisoned soul. However, it can be seen, especially amongst his writings in The Republic, that Plato was clear on his belief that the body and soul were separate entities, forming the base for philosophical extensions in more recent times. Continuing from Plato, St Thomas Aquinas extended earlier works on dualism in his endeavor to unite philosophy with proof of God. Aquinas agreed with the Aristotelian notion that when the soul entered the body it animated it and gave it life; calling it anima. Moreover according to Aquinas, the soul operates independently of the body and it cannot decay; for only things that can break into parts can decay, Thus, following Aquinas' argument, the soul is able to survive death. He also said that through

Sociological Definition of Religion Concerning Aborigines Essay Example for Free

Sociological Definition of Religion Concerning Aborigines Essay In my opinion, I find the sociological definition of religion to be my favorite and most helpful. Clifford Geertz explains his definition very clearly, saying that religion is a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, persuasive and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic. What I believe he means is that instead of looking at theories and things of that nature about how religion started, we should look at concepts beyond religion itself. I found that the Australian Aborigines follow closely along this same definition of religion. To the Aborigines, the world has always existed, meaning everything was always here; they had no creation myths. They had believed the ultimate supreme was associated with the sky and was the source for all power in the universe, but said it was not the focus of worship. Instead, religious practices focused upon a number of spirits who supposedly slept within the earth and transformed it every now and then. The earthly spirits were capable of taking the same form of either human or animal; they were considered â€Å"totemic ancestors†. This all relates to the sociological definition of religion because the Aborigines formed conceptions about the spirits, which gives an order for existence; it all seems very realistic to them. Anthropologists studied deeply into these Australian Aborigines. They looked into a primordial era that was a part of an Aborigine myth. They found that this era referred to a period in time when the first ancestors shaped the world and established traditions that their descendants must follow. The actions of the ancestors were thought to be imprinted on the land, possibly in significant physical landscapes, in unusual water holes, or in the main characteristics of animals and plants. This â€Å"era† was said to be the foundation of Aboriginal thought and religious practice and its power was ongoing. This all relates to Geertz’ definition of religion once again, because during the era, the ancestors set up lasting moods and motivations for the Aborigine people. The Aborigine people’s ritual practices concentrated on reenacting the events that took place during the primordial era. Song, dance, and body sand paintings were used to gain access to the era and teach everyone in the community about it. Male and female had different powers, as well as different types of work, during these certain rituals. These rituals relate to Geertz because the native Aborigine people are continuing the traditions and are passing down the tales about the spirits. They’re giving the conception of existence an order of factuality. In conclusion, what I can tell personally, the Australian Aborigines followed right along the same path of religion as Geertz would describe; I’m sure he’d be very fond of it all. With everything that they do, it all falls back on the sociological definition of religion. The rituals, the era, the beginnings, all follow along the same guidelines as Clifford Geertz.

Positive Effects of Japanese Saving Rate Essay Example for Free

Positive Effects of Japanese Saving Rate Essay The economic saving rate of Japan is among the highest in the world. According to a recent study, â€Å"the rate in the 80s and the early 90s had been over 10% steadily and higher than any other developed country. † (Katayama 1). This high saving rate has immediate positive effects on Japan’s economy and to foreign economies as well. In this short paper, we will discuss and explore some of the advantages brought by Japan’s high saving rate. As we are all familiar with, Japan is well known for being a self-sufficient country. It is a country that innovates its own useful products, and produces quality that is competitive with American made products. One great difference between the two is that Japan’s economy has a better inclination towards saving, while the American economy is more geared towards spending and making foreign investments. That is a major advantage for Japan as far as economic stability is concerned, because by being able to save well, they are able to sustain their position as a self-sufficient nation. That would mean, they don’t need to focus on making foreign investments to maintain and even increase their gross domestic product. In countries with relatively very high spending rates such as China and the United States, there is almost a desperate need to make foreign investments and export goods. Japan, meanwhile, is able to attract more foreign investors to their soil because of its high savings rate and economic self sufficiency. Future economic stability of citizens is another positive domestic effect of Japan’s saving rate. According to Katayama, â€Å"the life-cycle theory, one of the representative consumption theory, shows that while a rational household may save some of the income in youth, they may spend their savings after their retirement. † (3). This means that majority of Japanese citizens are placing more focus on their future rather than the present. When the current workforce reaches old age and eventually retire, they have personal savings that will ensure a better quality of life even during old age. It is a very good domestic advantage for Japan because the future generation of retired workforce will be taken good care of, even when they reach the age when they leave their jobs and cannot contribute to the Japanese economy anymore. Japan’s saving rate does not impact its own people only, but the entire Asia and the world as well. One of our research sources states:: â€Å"†¦since Japan is the worlds second largest economy (and the largest in Asia), developments within its borders have implications not only for itself, but the rest of the world as well, particularly the rest of Asia and the United States, its largest trade partner. Indeed, the faltering Japanese economy is potentially a significant impediment to economic recovery in the rest of Asia† (Nolan, Robinson and Wang). Although much has been said about the slight weakening of Japan’s currency and savings rate during the past 10 years, the fact remains that Japan is still the world’s second largest economy. It is also considered as the world’s largest creditor. The country’s savings rate, although not as good as before, remains slightly higher than those of highly developed countries and emerging economies. Thus, Japan is still in a position to greatly influence global economic trends in positive ways, eventually quell the current economic crises and pull more resources in the future. Bibliography: Brooke, James. â€Å"Quarters Growth Rose in Japan To 7%, Buoyed by China Trade†. The New York Times. (18 Feb. 2004). 1 Dec. 2007. http://query. nytimes. com/gst/fullpage. html? res=9B01E0DD123DF93BA25751C0A9629C8B63 Katayama, Kentaro. â€Å"Why Does Japan’s Saving Rate Decline So Rapidly? †. Policy Research Institute, Ministry of Finance, Japan. (Dec. 2006). 1 Dec. 2007. http://www. mof. go. jp/jouhou/soken/kenkyu/ron164. pdf. Noland, Marcus. , Sherman Robinson and Zhi Wang. â€Å"The Global Economic Effects of the Japanese Crisis†. The Peterson Institute for International Economics. 1 Dec. 2007. http://www. iie. com/publications/wp/wp. cfm? ResearchID=147.

Maldives Efforts To Combat Climate Change An Environmental Sciences Essay

Maldives Efforts To Combat Climate Change An Environmental Sciences Essay Global warming has been causing climate change and this has been affecting the Earth at an alarming rate. Maldivian government are aware of the need to cut down emissions. The tiny Indian Ocean nation of the Maldives will become carbon-neutral within 10 years. This was the pledge made by Maldives President Mohamed Nasheed on March 15. The low-lying country will be among the first in the world to be inundated by rising sea levels caused by human-induced climate change. The highest point in the chain of 1190 islands and coral atolls is just 1.8 metres above sea level. The latest research indicates that if present rates of carbon emissions continue, global warming will likely cause sea level rises about one metre by 2100. This is close to double the rise predicted by most scientists just two years ago.1 71. For the Maldives, climate change is a real issue. The 16th Conference of Parties (COP 16) in Cancun, Mexico from 29 November to 10 December. It estimated that Maldivians emitted 1.3 million tones of carbon dioxide in 2009 via electricity generation, transport, waste and fishing. This was the same estimated amount of carbon emitted by flights carrying 650,000 tourists to the Island each year. The total works out at 4.1 tones per Maldivian compared to 23.5 tones per person per year in the United States. 72. These measures were announced in the face of stark warnings from scientists that rising sea levels could engulf the Maldives and other low-lying nations this century, rendering the Island almost entirely uninhabitable with a rise in sea levels of one metre. 73. Without a global agreement to lower GHG emissions to combat climate change and rising sea levels, the Maldives could disappear from maps in spite of Nasheds efforts.2 74. Maldivian President Mohamed Nasheed is listed as the 39th top thinker in the world in Foreign Policy magazine, for his high profile role in combating climate change. Top two billionaires have been travelling the world first to China and soon to India, as well as around the US on a mission to create a global club of Great Givers who will transform philanthropy from a pastime of the wealthy into a calling for everyone who is rich.3 Combat Climate Change. 75. Solar power helps combat climate change, reduces our dependency on imported oil and more importantly cuts out electricity costs. The Maldives stands at the front line of climate change and we dont have the luxury of time to sit and wait for the rest of the world to act. 76. The Maldives which is particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels through global warming. The Maldives is made up of nearly 1200 islands that lie of the Indian sub-continent. None of the islands measure more than 1.8 metres (six feet) above sea level, making the country particularly vulnerable to a rise in sea levels associated with global warming. The Maldives face a very real threat from rising sea levels and I share President Nasheeds ambition to prevent the environmental disaster and human rights catastrophe that would befall the islands should the world fail to tackle this problem. 77. Our Climate Change Act is the most ambitious in the industrialized world, committing to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 42 per cent from 1990 levels by 2020 and by 80 per cent by 2050. Scotland also has 25 per cent of Europes offshore wind and tidal resources and 10 per cent of wave potential and the capacity make a significant difference in meeting universal climate change goals. The Maldives to become the worlds first carbon neutral country and in turn create a greener, more sustainable future for our planet.4 78. The international community has welcomed President Nasheeds efforts to raise awareness over the dangers of climate change, which threaten to submerge his low-lying nation. That same international community must not sit back and watch as the remnants of dictatorship try and sink the Maldives fledgling democracy.5 Declaration of the Climate Vulnerable Forum. 79. Alarmed at the pace of change to our Earth caused by human-induced climate change, including accelerating melting and loss of ice from Antarctica, Greenland, the Himalayas, Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya, acidification of the worlds oceans due to rising CO2 concentrations, increasingly intense tropical cyclones, more damaging and intense drought and floods, including Glacial Lakes Outburst Floods, in may region and high levels of sea-level rise than estimated just a few years ago, risks changing the face of the planet and threatening coastal cities, low lying areas, mountainous regions and vulnerable countries the world over. 80. Conscious that our nations lie at the climate front-line and will disproportionately feel the impacts of global warming, in the end climate change will threaten the sustainable development and, ultimately, the survival of all States and peoples the fate of the most vulnerable will be the fate of the world; and convinced that our acute vulnerability not only allows us to perceive the threat of climate change more clearly than others, but also provides us with the clarity of vision to understand the steps that must be taken to protect the Earths climate system and the determination to see the job done. 81. Recalling that UNFCCC is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change. 82. Emphasizing that developed countries bear the overwhelming historic responsibility for causing anthropogenic climate change and must therefore take the lead in responding to the challenge across all four building blocks of an enhanced international climate change regime namely mitigation, adaption, technology and finance that builds-upon the UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol. 83. Taking account their historic responsibility as well as the need to secure climate justice for the worlds poorest and most vulnerable communities, developed countries must commit to legally-binding and ambitious emission reduction targets consistent with limiting global average surface warming to well below 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and long-term stabilization of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations at well below 350 ppm, and that to achieve this the agreement at COP 15 UNFCCC should include a goal of peaking global emissions by 2015 with a sharp decline thereafter towards a global reduction of 85% by 2050. 84. Convinced that those countries which take the lead in embracing this future will be the winners of the 21st Century. 85. All other countries to follow the moral leadership shown by the Republic of Maldives by voluntarily committing to achieving carbon-neutrality. Assert that the achievement of carbon neutrality by developing countries will be extremely difficult given their lack of resources and capacity and pressing adaptation challenges, without external financial, technological and capability-building support from developed countries. Declare that, irrespective of the effectiveness of mitigation actions, significant adverse changes in the global climate are now inevitable and are already taking place, and thus Parties to the UNFCCC must also include, in the COP15 outcome document, an ambitious agreement on adaptation finance which should prioritize the needs of the most vulnerable countries, especially in the near-term. 86. Decide to hold a second meeting of the Climate Vulnerable Forum in Kiribati in 2010 to take forward this initiative, to further raise awareness of the vulnerabilities and actions of vulnerable countries to combat climate change, and to amplify their voice in international negotiations. In this context, request support from the UN system to assist the most vulnerable developing countries take action in pursuit of this Declaration.6 Copenhagen. 87. The event preceded the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP15) that began, where 192 parties are meeting with the intention of formulating an agreement to stabilize the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Organizers hope the conference will prove as successful as COP3 in 1997, known as the Kyoto Protocol, which led to agreements on mandatory emission reductions. During the week-long visit to Denmark, over 200 delegates aged 14-17 from 42 countries set up stands in Copenhagen town hall promoting their countrys efforts to combat climate change. The Maldivian delegates confessed theirs was one of the most popular with many people fascinated by the immediate threat climate change and sea level rise poses for the low-lying island nations. Maldivians are an innocent (party) suffering from the actions of developed countries.7 88. The issue has taken on urgency ahead of a major UN climate change conference scheduled for December in Copenhagen. At that meeting countries will negotiate a successor to the Kyoto Protocol with aims to cut the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide that scientists blame for causing global warming by trapping heat in the atmosphere. Wealthy nations want broad emissions cuts from all countries, while poorer ones say industrialized countries should carry most of the burden.8 1. The Guardian. 2. http://www.climateactionprogramme.org. 3. http://www.asiantribune.com. 4. http://www.scotland.gov.uk. 5. The Guardian, ibid. 6. http://www.ecs.org.et. 7. http://www.minivannews.com. 8. http://www.msnbc.msn.com.

The Black Death Plague :: essays research papers

The Black Death Plague   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Black Death plague, also known as the Bubonic plague, attacked Europe in 1347. The Bubonic plague was one of the many pestilences that would attack almost the entire Eastern Hemisphere. The last plague attacked a European city, Marseilles in 1722. On 1347, the name ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€šÃ¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ…“Black DeathÃÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€šÃ¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€š?, or the ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€šÃ¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ…“Bubonic PlagueÃÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€šÃ¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€š? was not used. During that time, they called the plague the Pestilence, or the Great Mortality. As we can see, the Black Death Plague has been in existence for about 650 years, and many are still unsure of the origin of this deadly plague.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are several explanations on the origins of the Black Death Plague. The first is from medieval writers who believe that it began in China because they considered China to be a land of magical events. Others thought that it originated from earthquakes and fire. However we all know that these explanations are just myths. But many historians agree that the deadly disease originated from infected rodents that migrated from the Middle East to the area between the Black and Caspian seas. The plague was then spread onto merchants traveling the west trade routes (the approximate date given is about 1347). Then the disease passed from the merchants to Italian towns along the Black Sea. The ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€šÃ¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ…“Black DeathÃÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€šÃ¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€š? plague moved quickly along other trade routes. However, through quarantine, parts of Europe were saved from the disease.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During the 14th and 15th centuries, the Black Death plague was not as bad as the first time it appeared. Doctors and investigators began to notice patterns on when the plague was the most active and when it was ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€šÃ¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ…“dormantÃÆ' ¢Ãƒâ€šÃ¢â€š ¬Ãƒâ€š?. They found out that the plague was strongest in the summer, absent in the winter. Investigators also noticed that the plague was most popular among the poorest, crowded cities. Therefore the governments set up a system of quarantining and treating people that were infected.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By the 16 century quarantines were a part of life. Towns began investigating anything suspicious. Travelers were expected to carry certificates of health proving that they have not been exposed to the deadly disease. Toward the end of the 16 century it was impossible to move out of quarantined areas.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Starting in the late17th century, the countries of Europe created a boundary between Europe and the lands where the Black Death plague came from. Anyone who tried to cross the boundary without permission, were shot.

Accuracy in Epic of Gilgamesh and The Hebrew Bible Essay -- Epic Gilga

There is much debate over the historical accuracy of the Hebrew Bible and The Epic of Gilgamesh. Some claim that to understand a work of literature requires extensive knowledge of the background of this work. The contrary position is that a work of literature can be interpreted solely on it’s content. The meaning of the term classical literature is that it can be applied during any period of time, it is eternal. Yet the conditions surrounding the author might still be of interest to the reader, and of importance to the work. As with many cases, the truth is somewhere in between the two extremes. Both sides have valid arguments about the importance of historicity. To say that historicity is of the utmost importance may seem extreme. Yet to understand a work, it is important to know if these were fantastic, yet true tales, or if they came from the mind of an author. Some may read a deeper significance into a fictional work. The fact that a story was ‘invented’ usually mean that it was created for a specific purpose. An author would be more prone to using certain literary devices, even in the story line, then fate, or whatever one believes creates the true stories. A completely fictional story may have more use of symbolism, and to search for the meaning of this symbolism, it might be important to know the environment in which it was written. On the other hand, a reader may put greater emphasis on the meaning behind stories based on fact. This may be because of a faith in a higher power that controls the events in a story. If one believes in God, or in any higher power, the events of a particular story can take on meaning as an act of this power, or even as a symbolic work from god. Still others may be more inspired by the... ...f a leader. The fact that Gilgamesh is presented as divine in the book ends credence to the possibility that the actual King was believed to be godly. It is in this instance, and others like it that we see another example of the importance of historicity. By studying these works, we can gain insight into ancient cultures, and even hypothesize about the past. If a work is highly historically accurate in other respects, it might lead one to believe that the other accounts in the work are accurate. Through this method, we may discover some of history through works of literature, history that records may not contain. Yet through this method we can only speculate, we cannot be certain of the accuracy of our results. Works Cited: Norman K. Gottwald The Hebrew Bible . Fortress Press, 1985. Sandars, N. K., trans. The Epic of Gilgamesh. London: Penguin, 1972. Accuracy in Epic of Gilgamesh and The Hebrew Bible Essay -- Epic Gilga There is much debate over the historical accuracy of the Hebrew Bible and The Epic of Gilgamesh. Some claim that to understand a work of literature requires extensive knowledge of the background of this work. The contrary position is that a work of literature can be interpreted solely on it’s content. The meaning of the term classical literature is that it can be applied during any period of time, it is eternal. Yet the conditions surrounding the author might still be of interest to the reader, and of importance to the work. As with many cases, the truth is somewhere in between the two extremes. Both sides have valid arguments about the importance of historicity. To say that historicity is of the utmost importance may seem extreme. Yet to understand a work, it is important to know if these were fantastic, yet true tales, or if they came from the mind of an author. Some may read a deeper significance into a fictional work. The fact that a story was ‘invented’ usually mean that it was created for a specific purpose. An author would be more prone to using certain literary devices, even in the story line, then fate, or whatever one believes creates the true stories. A completely fictional story may have more use of symbolism, and to search for the meaning of this symbolism, it might be important to know the environment in which it was written. On the other hand, a reader may put greater emphasis on the meaning behind stories based on fact. This may be because of a faith in a higher power that controls the events in a story. If one believes in God, or in any higher power, the events of a particular story can take on meaning as an act of this power, or even as a symbolic work from god. Still others may be more inspired by the... ...f a leader. The fact that Gilgamesh is presented as divine in the book ends credence to the possibility that the actual King was believed to be godly. It is in this instance, and others like it that we see another example of the importance of historicity. By studying these works, we can gain insight into ancient cultures, and even hypothesize about the past. If a work is highly historically accurate in other respects, it might lead one to believe that the other accounts in the work are accurate. Through this method, we may discover some of history through works of literature, history that records may not contain. Yet through this method we can only speculate, we cannot be certain of the accuracy of our results. Works Cited: Norman K. Gottwald The Hebrew Bible . Fortress Press, 1985. Sandars, N. K., trans. The Epic of Gilgamesh. London: Penguin, 1972.

Final Strategic Planning Essay

In any business, there are strategies in place to make sure the business is a success. This is how Healthy Happy BOW WOW plans to run and execute plans for success. This company is in the process of creating a product unlike any other on the market. Our objective is to do as much research as needed to create this product for dogs so that they can live healthier, happier lives. To do this, the company has made sure to begin with hiring the best possible people to do the jobs required at Happy Healthy BOW WOW. This means scientists, researchers, properly trained maintenance and clean-up crew, analysts, and people just to run day-to-day operations. The company will also hire a marketing team when it is getting ready to launch to make sure the product team markets it properly before final launch to get the information to the public. In the meantime, one strategy the company plans to use is the media. The company will give tours of the facility safely and show the research being performed and how clean and state of the art the facility is. All of this is free advertising that the company needs because of such a high cost of the research and facility. Another strategy the company plans to use and is in the process of doing is reaching out to get research money from the government and other entities to help fund the project. The company is receiving government funds shortly and plans on putting them directly into research as directed in the grant. The company is also working closely with other agencies for non-profit such as the ASPCA to raise funds for further research. In turn, the company will be donating many products for the ASPCA to use on animals they rescue. The company also wants to donate and pair with local and eventually nationwide animal shelters to help animals in need because this is the company’s top priority. To help make dogs healthy, and a healthy well taken care of dog is a happy dog. This is also a way to use the media because if the company receives a lot of camera time of all the good work it is doing to help animals it will help boost sales. In addition, this will get the product out to other main companies such a Purina, Iams, and PetCo. These are all great companies with good reputations that Happy Healthy BOW WOW plans to team with in the future. If the company receives donations from some of these types of companies with a plan to integrate it will make the company very sound to the public very quickly. This is because they are companies that people in the community trust and respect. Another strategic sound plan for gaining more access to funds for research is to begin to develop and take the product a step further. Happy Healthy BOW WOW wants to start by making the product for all types of pets not just dogs. It will branch off and form two different subsidiaries. One will be for research for other small animals such as cats, birds, rabbits, etc. The other has plans to be a research facility for a larger base of customers such as commercial farmers. This will take the company to a completely new level. This is not something that is going to happen immediately, but is in the strategic planning stage for the future for the company to grow and expand and to continue to receive more funding for the government and other agencies. To make sure the company is getting the word out to the public in the right way it will involve a few tactics. It will get with some of these companies and have survey made that people will receive with a product from one of the companies. This will have an incentive such as getting a coupon off the next product for filling out the survey. The company will handle this process to keep the price of this promotion a little lower that if another company was to handle it. The company also has representative that will go around to different places and talk to vendors and the people that are going to be purchasing the product. The company wants to everyone to get to know the faces in front and behind the scenes at Healthy Happy BOW WOW because customer service is a top priority at the company. This is another way that they use the media as a tactic to get people to know and have understandable knowledge of the company’s mission and values. The company can do this by bringing the media behind the scenes and its front of the house people to the public. As far as safety, legal, and ethical values are concerned within the company the CEO takes very seriously. There are serious background checks and screening done on employees and not just when hired but periodically throughout employment along with drug screenings. The CEO also makes sure inspections are thorough and often. The company has its own team to do inspections and an outside team to come in and do inspections as well. The company has not failed a single government inspection due to this process. If the company fails these regulated inspections by the government it will shut the company down. This why the company follows all regulations of the law presently and will always follow them in the future. There is too much at stake and money spent to take that risk. Happy Healthy BOW WOW wants to be in touch with its customers on a constant basis. The company will hold events and always have information on hand for anyone with comments, suggestions, and questions. They will have a website where all dog lovers can get together and chat and it will be free of charge. It will have broadcasts of upcoming events on-line and through the media. The company will do anything and everything in its power to reach out to its loyal customer to prove and show what the company is about and that is happy healthy customers and the people they belong too. End of Summary In the world today, many people have dogs and love them as if the dog is so much a part of their lives as not just a companion but also much more than that. People of all types endure their dogs as a part of their family. This may mean a single person having a dog or a family that considers that dog as a part of the family and cannot think of life without the dog they love and cherish. This why it is so important to take care of that loved animal and make sure that the pet is in top physical shape and lives a happy long life. This is not always easy because of so many health issues that may arise. There are many shots and vaccinations that scientists develop to prevent disease and problems such as Rabies, Mange, Parvo, Worms, and many more. There are so many now it is hard to keep track. This is where Healthy Happy BOW-WOW comes to the rescue. It is a new innovative idea that tracks the health of a dog by using a dog toy to check the saliva of a dog for health conditions. This is a business creating a product that helps determine the health of a dog. How it works is to use dog toys to track whether or not a dog is healthy. This happens by using a safe non-toxic serum that detects different chemical reactions to relate whether or not the dog has a healthy immune system or if something is wrong. This not an exact science and Healthy Happy BOW WOW is doing research to determine the best possible way to implement this program and as safely as possible. Most dogs love to play with some type of toy, whether it is a stuffed animal or a ball, so it is easy for owners to use this product. A person has the ability of using this product as much as the same as people use toys to make a dog have fun and the freedom they enjoy. This product is in process and needs more research to make sure it is safe and effective for dogs of all types and sizes. It is the same rationale as liquid flea medication that scientists use to determine the amount for which is safe for animals the weigh differently than others. A dog weighing 90 pounds does not take the same medication for fleas, as a 20-pound dog needs to have. This is why the company has a research team to ensure the right dosage for a person’s pet. Every person that has a dog has the ability to ensure a longer life for his or her cherished pet by using this product. This means any person that has a dog that they love is a potential customer. Another way this product is helpful for canines and potential customers is that if a shelter uses this product to show a potential person wanting to adopt a dog is how it works for their future pet. That person has the reassurance the pet is healthy and has the opportunity to make sure they can sustain the health of their future pet by using this product. Many people are afraid of stray dogs because they are not sure of what infections the dog may carry. This product creates a way of standard of adopting animals that may cut down of the fear of adoption. This is just one of the ways that the company plans to create a product to satisfy the company’s customers, which the company believes, are the dog and the pet owner. The company is creating this product just as much for the pet in a person’s life as the person themselves as customers. The responsibility of making sure dogs and all pets are in good health and happy relies on the ethical and social responsibility of people. Companies such as Pet-Co are a prime example of what Healthier Happy BOW BOW wants the company’s standards to be. According to â€Å"Ethisphere Institute Honors Ethical Behavior Of Petco, Other Companies† (2013), â€Å"Petco has been named one of the World’s Most Ethical Companies for 2013 and was the only pet-related company to make the list, the Ethisphere Institute reported today. † This is what this company wants its standards to be in the near future. Everyone plays a role in the care of animals and this is the goal of this company to make it happen. The company wants everyone to play a part in making sure pets have a good home and a healthy and happy long life. This is what it means to be socially and ethically responsible in every community no matter where. That is why the company wants to integrate the community with the product to create awareness. Stray animals are on the streets every day and are hungry and sick because of malnourishment. This not the animals fault. People make decisions for themselves, but animals do not have that opportunity and it is disturbing that so many animals go hungry and people abused because of the choices that people make. This company has plans that have the opportunity for people to step up and stop this from happening and this is the vision and future of this company. Many people do not realize or turn the other cheek when it comes to animals in need because of their busy lives. It is no okay for this to happen, which is why this company plans to use profits to teach people about what is happening in the world today in the hands of people in regards to animal abuse. Customer’s needs are important to Healthy Happy BOW WOW and this is why it caters to anyone and everyone that shows an interest in adopting a pet or currently has one they love. The reason why the company has advantage considering customer’s needs and competitive advantage is because like Pet Co this company wants to ensure pets are taken care of in the way that the people the dogs are paired with love being a part of each other’s lives and making a standard of living for the pet. Most companies try, and have commercials promoting dedication to animals but few actually do anything about what is happening to pets that are not paying customers. These companies only strive to pay an amount to a charity of its choice to show on television that the company is trying. If certain companies such as Purina wanted to make a huge difference in helping the Humane Societies across the United States, it would with all the massive money it makes. This is why Healthy Happy BOW WOW will stand against the competition to show the responsibility it wants to ensure the safety of pets and their health. This is what Healthy Happy BOW WOW is about and nothing less. This company has many advantages such as it is a new and innovative product with lots of room for advancement. It is something every pet love would want for their pet so it is easily marketable. There are disadvantages also. Since it is such a great product, there are worries of another company stealing the idea and creating a generic version. The company has many opportunities for advancement and plans to move forward with the product. It wants to take the product to the next level by developing the product for more than just dogs. The company wants to make the product for all pets and possibly go commercial and create a version for livestock as well. The problem with this is the cost. Research is very costly so Health Happy BOW WOW has to make sure, market the product well to people, and communicate the importance of the product to the people who will be buying it. This is why the company plans to use the media as a main source of marketing. The company will give tours of the facilities safely to the media so that they can convey to the people a lot of information about the product and its safety. This is a way to have free advertising and a way to reach a very large audience in a short amount of time. The company will also use a marketing team and advertise on-line and through television ads and billboards. The company wants to make sure the public knows that the product is undergoing extensive research to make sure it is the safest and most quality item for their pet.

Work in a Business Enviornment

UNIT 203:Work in a business Enviornment. 203. 1:Understand how to respect other people at work. 1. 1 Describe what is meant by diversity and why it should be valued? It is about valuing variety and individual differences and creating a culture, environment and practices which respect and value differences for the benefit of society, organisations and individuals. A diverse workforce is important because the organisation can offer a wider range of resources, skills, ideas and energy to the business, providing a competitive edge.Organisations who embrace diversity will reap the benefits of resourcing from a wider pool of talent, broaden their market, improve productivity and raise their profile in the community. 1. 2Describe how to treat other people in a way that is sensitive to their needs 1. One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself 2. One should not treat others in ways that one would not like to be treated. Keeping the above as a thumb of rule we can treat other people in a way that is sensitive to their needs. . 3 Describe how to treat other people in a way that respects their abilities, background, values, customs and beliefs . Every individual's needs have to be taken into account and respected when sorting out disagreements. Also we need to listen to people's needs and support them through and that way they will feel valued. Different people will have different standards and levels of understanding, so we need to use the appropriate language and respect confidentiality 1. Describe ways in which it is possible to learn from others at work. Different people follow different strategies to solve difficult situations. So, it is good to take that opportunity to learn from co-workers and sharpen the skills. Pay attention to see how your colleagues act and react,ask for demonstration ,guidance from the experienced hands and developing strong networks of relationships to be successful. 203. 2: Understand how to maintain security and confid entiality at work and deal with concerns. 2. Outline the purpose and benefits of maintaining security and confidentiality at work Information / Data security means protecting all the data and information from unauthorised access.. Information security is a business requirement and also a legal requirement. There would be highly sensitive informations at the workplace which should be held secured and confidential. Confidentiality maintenance also relates to professionalism of the organisation. So employees must make sure they maintain a professional attitude and not share / disclose any sensitive information without authorisation from the organisation. . 2 Outline requirements for security and confidentiality in an organisation. Confidentiality and information security are the key aspects for an organisation. All information have to be original and true, and should be free from any errors. An organisation has to be ready at all times to give access to the systems that store, process and deliver information to the right people at the right time. All companies have and should have their own policies and procedures regarding security and confidentiality. 2. Outline legal requirements for security and confidentiality as required Every organisation should be careful of how they handle and respect data that passes through their hands. Data Protection Act 1998;Human Rights Act 1998;Common Law of Confidentiality gives us a clear picture of the legal requirement and the best practices for confidentiality and security within an organization. For confidential handling of material share only what is essential and alert them to the company guidance ;Think before taking the information out of the office i. e. via memory stick or paper.If information has to be released ensure that it is only as much as is required for the purpose required and that the recipient is aware of their responsibilities with regard to the information being received; Ensure safe disposal of data mater ial; Inform senior staff if you have any concerns regarding security or confidentiality. For security within an organization Access Rights to Data: Limited to admin support and directors only. Only directors or other authorised staff can transport data. Network Protection: make sure you have all computers have fire walls and antivirus protection.Data carrying devices: Make sure that USB memory stick and external hard drive are all encrypted. 2. 4 Describe procedures for dealing with concerns about security and confidentiality in an organisation. Every employee should be made aware of the rules and regulations of the organisation. Following are the procedures to be followed for dealing with concerns about security and confidentiality in an organisation. 1) Identify potential problems 2) Identify potential loss due to each problem 3) Determine possible preventative measures 203. 3: Understand the purpose and procedures for keeping waste to a minimum in a business environment. . 1 Expl ain the purpose of keeping waste to a minimum It is important to keep waste to a minimum in the work place. The more you waste, the more money it is going to cost the company. Companies have procedures like recycling which helps to keep your workplace tidy whilst saving money 3. 2 Describe the main causes of waste that may occur in a business environment When leaving the room or office, one has to make sure that lights that are no longer in use should be switched off, Most of the time we tend to forget about them and leave them on, thereby causing more expenses for the organisation and destroying the ecosystem. . 3 Describe ways of keeping waste to a minimum. As our organization is much related to electronics, the lion portion of waste composed of electronic waste which cannot be easily disposed off. but the organistion had a perfect knowledge and knowhow in minimizing waste. A specialised parts harvesting and component level repair teams working rigorously everyday to keep the wast e minimum under the non renewable category. 3. 4 Identify ways of using technology to reduce waste All machines have a period within which it has to be serviced and certified as good enough to be used.When these checks are performed regularly on a schedule the equipments run longer and therefore it minimises the chances of buying new machines before the life time of the machine already in hand. This saves money for the organisation. Maintaining the machines also helps consume less power, and less expenses on repairing and replacement of parts. 3. 5 Outline the purpose and benefits of recycling Recycling helps resource conservation of energies (renewable and non-renewable), solid waste reduction thereby conserving the ecosystem, environmental protection e. g trees and other living things and also helps ith the social and economic development. Recycling †¢Saves the Earth †¢Saves Energy †¢Helps reduce Global Warming and Pollution †¢Reduces Waste Products in Landfill s saving the earth and ecosystem †¢Helps you Save Money. 3. 6 Describe organisational procedures for recycling materials Our organization maintains the procedures for recycling strictly to do the business in eco friendly ambience. As a part of it waste bins located at different locations and helps to sort the renewable waste. And a specialised parts harvesting and component level repair teams working rigorously everyday to keep the waste minimum under the non renewable category.

Compilation of Mathematicians and Their Contributions

I. Greek Mathematicians Thales of Miletus Birthdate: 624 B. C. Died: 547-546 B. C. Nationality: Greek Title: Regarded as â€Å"Father of Science† Contributions: * He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry. * Discovery that a circle is  bisected  by its diameter, that the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal and that  vertical angles  are equal. * Accredited with foundation of the Ionian school of Mathematics that was a centre of learning and research. * Thales theorems used in Geometry: . The pairs of opposite angles formed by two intersecting lines are equal. 2. The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal. 3. The sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 °. 4. An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle. Pythagoras Birthdate: 569 B. C. Died: 475 B. C. Nationality: Greek Contributions: * Pythagorean Theorem. In a right angled triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides. Note: A right triangle is a triangle that contains one right (90 °) angle.The longest side of a right triangle, called the hypotenuse, is the side opposite the right angle. The Pythagorean Theorem is important in mathematics, physics, and astronomy and has practical applications in surveying. * Developed a sophisticated numerology in which odd numbers denoted male and even female: 1 is the generator of numbers and is the number of reason 2 is the number of opinion 3 is the number of harmony 4 is the number of justice and retribution (opinion squared) 5 is the number of marriage (union of the ? rst male and the ? st female numbers) 6 is the number of creation 10 is the holiest of all, and was the number of the universe, because 1+2+3+4 = 10. * Discovery of incommensurate ratios, what we would call today irrational numbers. * Made the ? rst inroads into the branch of mathematics which would today be called Number Theory. * Setting up a secret mystical society, known as th e Pythagoreans that taught Mathematics and Physics. Anaxagoras Birthdate: 500 B. C. Died: 428 B. C. Nationality: Greek Contributions: * He was the first to explain that the moon shines due to reflected light from the sun. Theory of minute constituents of things and his emphasis on mechanical processes in the formation of order that paved the way for the atomic theory. * Advocated that matter is composed of infinite elements. * Introduced the notion of nous (Greek, â€Å"mind† or â€Å"reason†) into the philosophy of origins. The concept of nous (â€Å"mind†), an infinite and unchanging substance that enters into and controls every living object. He regarded material substance as an infinite multitude of imperishable primary elements, referring all generation and disappearance to mixture and separation, respectively.Euclid Birthdate: c. 335 B. C. E. Died: c. 270 B. C. E. Nationality: Greek Title: â€Å"Father of Geometry† Contributions: * Published a book called the â€Å"Elements† serving as the main textbook for teaching  mathematics  (especially  geometry) from the time of its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century. The Elements. One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's  Elements, found at  Oxyrhynchus and dated to circa AD 100. * Wrote works on perspective,  conic sections,  spherical geometry,  number theory  and  rigor. In addition to the  Elements, at least five works of Euclid have survived to the present day. They follow the same logical structure as  Elements, with definitions and proved propositions. Those are the following: 1. Data  deals with the nature and implications of â€Å"given† information in geometrical problems; the subject matter is closely related to the first four books of the  Elements. 2. On Divisions of Figures, which survives only partially in  Arabic  translation, concerns the division of geometrical figures into two or more equal par ts or into parts in given  ratios.It is similar to a third century AD work by  Heron of Alexandria. 3. Catoptrics, which concerns the mathematical theory of mirrors, particularly the images formed in plane and spherical concave mirrors. The attribution is held to be anachronistic however by J J O'Connor and E F Robertson who name  Theon of Alexandria  as a more likely author. 4. Phaenomena, a treatise on  spherical astronomy, survives in Greek; it is quite similar to  On the Moving Sphere  by  Autolycus of Pitane, who flourished around 310 BC. * Famous five postulates of Euclid as mentioned in his book Elements . Point is that which has no part. 2. Line is a breadthless length. 3. The extremities of lines are points. 4. A straight line lies equally with respect to the points on itself. 5. One can draw a straight line from any point to any point. * The  Elements  also include the following five â€Å"common notions†: 1. Things that are equal to the same thi ng are also equal to one another (Transitive property of equality). 2. If equals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal. 3. If equals are subtracted from equals, then the remainders are equal. 4.Things that coincide with one another equal one another (Reflexive Property). 5. The whole is greater than the part. Plato Birthdate: 424/423 B. C. Died: 348/347 B. C. Nationality: Greek Contributions: * He helped to distinguish between  pure  and  applied mathematics  by widening the gap between â€Å"arithmetic†, now called  number theory  and â€Å"logistic†, now called  arithmetic. * Founder of the  Academy  in  Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the  Western world. It provided a comprehensive curriculum, including such subjects as astronomy, biology, mathematics, political theory, and philosophy. Helped to lay the foundations of  Western philosophy  and  science. * Platonic solids Platonic solid is a regular, convex poly hedron. The faces are congruent, regular polygons, with the same number of faces meeting at each vertex. There are exactly five solids which meet those criteria; each is named according to its number of faces. * Polyhedron Vertices Edges FacesVertex configuration 1. tetrahedron4643. 3. 3 2. cube / hexahedron81264. 4. 4 3. octahedron61283. 3. 3. 3 4. dodecahedron2030125. 5. 5 5. icosahedron1230203. 3. 3. 3. 3 AristotleBirthdate: 384 B. C. Died: 322 BC (aged 61 or 62) Nationality: Greek Contributions: * Founded the Lyceum * His biggest contribution to the field of mathematics was his development of the study of logic, which he termed â€Å"analytics†, as the basis for mathematical study. He wrote extensively on this concept in his work Prior Analytics, which was published from Lyceum lecture notes several hundreds of years after his death. * Aristotle's Physics, which contains a discussion of the infinite that he believed existed in theory only, sparked much debate in later cen turies.It is believed that Aristotle may have been the first philosopher to draw the distinction between actual and potential infinity. When considering both actual and potential infinity, Aristotle states this:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1. A body is defined as that which is bounded by a surface, therefore there cannot be an infinite body. 2. A Number, Numbers, by definition, is countable, so there is no number called ‘infinity’. 3. Perceptible bodies exist somewhere, they have a place, so there cannot be an infinite body. But Aristotle says that we cannot say that the infinite does not exist for these reasons: 1.If no infinite, magnitudes will not be divisible into magnitudes, but magnitudes can be divisible into magnitudes (potentially infinitely), therefore an infinite in some sense exists. 2. If no infinite, number would not be infinite, but number is infinite (potentially), therefore infinity does exist in some sense. * He was the founder of  formal logic, pioneere d the study of  zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Erasthosthenes Birthdate: 276 B. C. Died: 194 B. C. Nationality: Greek Contributions: * Sieve of Eratosthenes Worked on  prime numbers.He is remembered for his prime number sieve, the ‘Sieve of Eratosthenes' which, in modified form, is still an important tool in  number theory  research. Sieve of Eratosthenes- It does so by iteratively marking as composite (i. e. not prime) the multiples of each prime, starting with the multiples of 2. The multiples of a given prime are generated starting from that prime, as a sequence of numbers with the same difference, equal to that prime, between consecutive numbers. This is the Sieve's key distinction from using trial division to sequentially test each candidate number for divisibility by each prime. Made a surprisingly accurate measurement of the circumference of the Earth * He was the first per son to use the word â€Å"geography† in Greek and he invented the discipline of geography as we understand it. * He invented a system of  latitude  and  longitude. * He was the first to calculate the  tilt of the Earth's axis  (also with remarkable accuracy). * He may also have accurately calculated the  distance from the earth to the sun  and invented the  leap day. * He also created the first  map of the world  incorporating parallels and meridians within his cartographic depictions based on the available geographical knowledge of the era. Founder of scientific  chronology. Favourite Mathematician Euclid paves the way for what we known today as â€Å"Euclidian Geometry† that is considered as an indispensable for everyone and should be studied not only by students but by everyone because of its vast applications and relevance to everyone’s daily life. It is Euclid who is gifted with knowledge and therefore became the pillar of todayâ€℠¢s success in the field of geometry and mathematics as a whole. There were great mathematicians as there were numerous great mathematical knowledge that God wants us to know.In consideration however, there were several sagacious Greek mathematicians that had imparted their great contributions and therefore they deserve to be appreciated. But since my task is to declare my favourite mathematician, Euclid deserves most of my kudos for laying down the foundation of geometry. II. Mathematicians in the Medieval Ages Leonardo of Pisa Birthdate: 1170 Died: 1250 Nationality: Italian Contributions: * Best known to the modern world for the spreading of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system in Europe, primarily through the publication in 1202 of his Liber Abaci (Book of Calculation). Fibonacci introduces the so-called Modus Indorum (method of the Indians), today known as Arabic numerals. The book advocated numeration with the digits 0–9 and place value. The book showed the practical im portance of the new numeral system, using lattice multiplication and Egyptian fractions, by applying it to commercial bookkeeping, conversion of weights and measures, the calculation of interest, money-changing, and other applications. * He introduced us to the bar we use in fractions, previous to this, the numerator has quotations around it. * The square root notation is also a Fibonacci method. He wrote following books that deals Mathematics teachings: 1. Liber Abbaci (The Book of Calculation), 1202 (1228) 2. Practica Geometriae (The Practice of Geometry), 1220 3. Liber Quadratorum (The Book of Square Numbers), 1225 * Fibonacci sequence of numbers in which each number is the sum of the previous two numbers, starting with 0 and 1. This sequence begins 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987†¦ The higher up in the sequence, the closer two consecutive â€Å"Fibonacci numbers† of the sequence divided by each other will approach the golden ratio (ap proximately 1: 1. 18 or 0. 618: 1). Roger Bacon Birthdate: 1214 Died: 1294 Nationality: English Contributions: * Opus Majus contains treatments of mathematics and optics, alchemy, and the positions and sizes of the celestial bodies. * Advocated the experimental method as the true foundation of scientific knowledge and who also did some work in astronomy, chemistry, optics, and machine design. Nicole Oresme Birthdate: 1323 Died: July 11, 1382 Nationality: French Contributions: * He also developed a language of ratios, to relate speed to force and resistance, and applied it to physical and cosmological questions. He made a careful study of musicology and used his findings to develop the use of irrational exponents. * First to theorise that sound and light are a transfer of energy that does not displace matter. * His most important contributions to mathematics are contained in Tractatus de configuratione qualitatum et motuum. * Developed the first use of powers with fractional exponent s, calculation with irrational proportions. * He proved the divergence of the harmonic series, using the standard method still taught in calculus classes today. Omar Khayyam Birhtdate: 18 May 1048Died: 4 December 1131 Nationality: Arabian Contibutions: * He derived solutions to cubic equations using the intersection of conic sections with circles. * He is the author of one of the most important treatises on algebra written before modern times, the Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, which includes a geometric method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a hyperbola with a circle. * He contributed to a calendar reform. * Created important works on geometry, specifically on the theory of proportions. Omar Khayyam's geometric solution to cubic equations. Binomial theorem and extraction of roots. * He may have been first to develop Pascal's Triangle, along with the essential Binomial Theorem which is sometimes called Al-Khayyam's Formula: (x+y)n = n! ? xkyn-k / k! (n -k)!. * Wrote a book entitled â€Å"Explanations of the difficulties in the postulates in Euclid's Elements† The treatise of Khayyam can be considered as the first treatment of parallels axiom which is not based on petitio principii but on more intuitive postulate. Khayyam refutes the previous attempts by other Greek and Persian mathematicians to prove the proposition.In a sense he made the first attempt at formulating a non-Euclidean postulate as an alternative to the parallel postulate. Favorite Mathematician As far as medieval times is concerned, people in this era were challenged with chaos, social turmoil, economic issues, and many other disputes. Part of this era is tinted with so called â€Å"Dark Ages† that marked the history with unfavourable events. Therefore, mathematicians during this era-after they undergone the untold toils-were deserving individuals for gratitude and praises for they had supplemented the following generations with mathematical ideas that is very useful and applicable.Leonardo Pisano or Leonardo Fibonacci caught my attention therefore he is my favourite mathematician in the medieval times. His desire to spread out the Hindu-Arabic numerals in other countries thus signifies that he is a person of generosity, with his noble will, he deserves to be†¦ III. Mathematicians in the Renaissance Period Johann Muller Regiomontanus Birthdate: 6 June 1436 Died: 6 July 1476 Nationality: German Contributions: * He completed De Triangulis omnimodus. De Triangulis (On Triangles) was one of the first textbooks presenting the current state of trigonometry. His work on arithmetic and algebra, Algorithmus Demonstratus, was among the first containing symbolic algebra. * De triangulis is in five books, the first of which gives the basic definitions: quantity, ratio, equality, circles, arcs, chords, and the sine function. * The crater Regiomontanus on the Moon is named after him. Scipione del Ferro Birthdate: 6 February 1465 Died: 5 N ovember 1526 Nationality: Italian Contributions: * Was the first to solve the cubic equation. * Contributions to the rationalization of fractions with denominators containing sums of cube roots. Investigated geometry problems with a compass set at a fixed angle. Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia Birthdate: 1499/1500 Died: 13 December 1557 Nationality: Italian Contributions: †¢He published many books, including the first Italian translations of Archimedes and Euclid, and an acclaimed compilation of mathematics. †¢Tartaglia was the first to apply mathematics to the investigation of the paths of cannonballs; his work was later validated by Galileo's studies on falling bodies. †¢He also published a treatise on retrieving sunken ships. †¢Ã¢â‚¬ Cardano-Tartaglia Formula†. †¢He makes solutions to cubic equations. Formula for solving all types of cubic equations, involving first real use of complex numbers (combinations of real and imaginary numbers). †¢Tartagli a’s Triangle (earlier version of Pascal’s Triangle) A triangular pattern of numbers in which each number is equal to the sum of the two numbers immediately above it. †¢He gives an expression for the volume of a tetrahedron: Girolamo Cardano Birthdate: 24 September 1501 Died: 21 September 1576 Nationality: Italian Contributions: * He wrote more than 200 works on medicine, mathematics, physics, philosophy, religion, and music. Was the first mathematician to make systematic use of numbers less than zero. * He published the solutions to the cubic and quartic equations in his 1545 book Ars Magna. * Opus novum de proportionibus he introduced the binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem. * His book about games of chance, Liber de ludo aleae (â€Å"Book on Games of Chance†), written in 1526, but not published until 1663, contains the first systematic treatment of probability. * He studied hypocycloids, published in de proportionibus 1570. The generating circl es of these hypocycloids were later named Cardano circles or cardanic ircles and were used for the construction of the first high-speed printing presses. * His book, Liber de ludo aleae (â€Å"Book on Games of Chance†), contains the first systematic treatment of probability. * Cardano's Ring Puzzle also known as Chinese Rings, still manufactured today and related to the Tower of Hanoi puzzle. * He introduced binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem, and introduced and solved the geometric hypocyloid problem, as well as other geometric theorems (e. g. the theorem underlying the 2:1 spur wheel which converts circular to reciprocal rectilinear motion).Binomial theorem-formula for multiplying two-part expression: a mathematical formula used to calculate the value of a two-part mathematical expression that is squared, cubed, or raised to another power or exponent, e. g. (x+y)n, without explicitly multiplying the parts themselves. Lodovico Ferrari Birthdate: February 2, 1522 Died: October 5, 1565 Nationality: Italian Contributions: * Was mainly responsible for the solution of quartic equations. * Ferrari aided Cardano on his solutions for quadratic equations and cubic equations, and was mainly responsible for the solution of quartic equations that Cardano published.As a result, mathematicians for the next several centuries tried to find a formula for the roots of equations of degree five and higher. Favorite Mathematician Indeed, this period is supplemented with great mathematician as it moved on from the Dark Ages and undergone a rebirth. Enumerated mathematician were all astounding with their performances and contributions. But for me, Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia is my favourite mathematician not only because of his undisputed contributions but on the way he keep himself calm despite of conflicts between him and other mathematicians in this period. IV. Mathematicians in the 16th CenturyFrancois Viete Birthdate: 1540 Died: 23 February 1603 Nationality: F rench Contributions: * He developed the first infinite-product formula for ?. * Vieta is most famous for his systematic use of decimal notation and variable letters, for which he is sometimes called the Father of Modern Algebra. (Used A,E,I,O,U for unknowns and consonants for parameters. ) * Worked on geometry and trigonometry, and in number theory. * Introduced the polar triangle into spherical trigonometry, and stated the multiple-angle formulas for sin (nq) and cos (nq) in terms of the powers of sin(q) and cos(q). * Published Francisci Viet? universalium inspectionum ad canonem mathematicum liber singularis; a book of trigonometry, in abbreviated Canonen mathematicum, where there are many formulas on the sine and cosine. It is unusual in using decimal numbers. * In 1600, numbers potestatum ad exegesim resolutioner, a work that provided the means for extracting roots and solutions of equations of degree at most 6. John Napier Birthdate: 1550 Birthplace: Merchiston Tower, Edinburgh Death: 4 April 1617 Contributions: * Responsible for advancing the notion of the decimal fraction by introducing the use of the decimal point. His suggestion that a simple point could be used to eparate whole number and fractional parts of a number soon became accepted practice throughout Great Britain. * Invention of the Napier’s Bone, a crude hand calculator which could be used for division and root extraction, as well as multiplication. * Written Works: 1. A Plain Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St. John. (1593) 2. A Description of the Wonderful Canon of Logarithms. (1614) Johannes Kepler Born: December 27, 1571 Died: November 15, 1630 (aged 58) Nationality: German Title: â€Å"Founder of Modern Optics† Contributions: * He generalized Alhazen's Billiard Problem, developing the notion of curvature. He was first to notice that the set of Platonic regular solids was incomplete if concave solids are admitted, and first to prove that there were only 13 â€Å"Archi medean solids. † * He proved theorems of solid geometry later discovered on the famous palimpsest of Archimedes. * He rediscovered the Fibonacci series, applied it to botany, and noted that the ratio of Fibonacci numbers converges to the Golden Mean. * He was a key early pioneer in calculus, and embraced the concept of continuity (which others avoided due to Zeno's paradoxes); his work was a direct inspiration for Cavalieri and others. He developed mensuration methods and anticipated Fermat's theorem (df(x)/dx = 0 at function extrema). * Kepler's Wine Barrel Problem, he used his rudimentary calculus to deduce which barrel shape would be the best bargain. * Kepler’s Conjecture- is a mathematical conjecture about sphere packing in three-dimensional Euclidean space. It says that no arrangement of equally sized spheres filling space has a greater average density than that of the cubic close packing (face-centered cubic) and hexagonal close packing arrangements.Marin Mersenn e Birthdate: 8 September 1588 Died: 1 September 1648 Nationality: French Contributions: * Mersenne primes. * Introduced several innovating concepts that can be considered as the basis of modern reflecting telescopes: 1. Instead of using an eyepiece, Mersenne introduced the revolutionary idea of a second mirror that would reflect the light coming from the first mirror. This allows one to focus the image behind the primary mirror in which a hole is drilled at the centre to unblock the rays. 2.Mersenne invented the afocal telescope and the beam compressor that is useful in many multiple-mirrors telescope designs. 3. Mersenne recognized also that he could correct the spherical aberration of the telescope by using nonspherical mirrors and that in the particular case of the afocal arrangement he could do this correction by using two parabolic mirrors. * He also performed extensive experiments to determine the acceleration of falling objects by comparing them with the swing of pendulums, r eported in his Cogitata Physico-Mathematica in 1644.He was the first to measure the length of the seconds pendulum, that is a pendulum whose swing takes one second, and the first to observe that a pendulum's swings are not isochronous as Galileo thought, but that large swings take longer than small swings. Gerard Desargues Birthdate: February 21, 1591 Died: September 1661 Nationality: French Contributions: * Founder of the theory of conic sections. Desargues offered a unified approach to the several types of conics through projection and section. * Perspective Theorem – that when two triangles are in perspective the meets of corresponding sides are collinear. * Founder of projective geometry. Desargues’s theorem The theorem states that if two triangles ABC and A? B? C? , situated in three-dimensional space, are related to each other in such a way that they can be seen perspectively from one point (i. e. , the lines AA? , BB? , and CC? all intersect in one point), then the points of intersection of corresponding sides all lie on one line provided that no two corresponding sides are†¦ * Desargues introduced the notions of the opposite ends of a straight line being regarded as coincident, parallel lines meeting at a point of infinity and regarding a straight line as circle whose center is at infinity. Desargues’ most important work Brouillon projet d’une atteinte aux evenemens des rencontres d? une cone avec un plan (Proposed Draft for an essay on the results of taking plane sections of a cone) was printed in 1639. In it Desargues presented innovations in projective geometry applied to the theory of conic sections. Favorite Mathematician Mathematicians in this period has its own distinct, and unique knowledge in the field of mathematics.They tackled the more complex world of mathematics, this complex world of Mathematics had at times stirred their lives, ignited some conflicts between them, unfolded their flaws and weaknesses but at the end, they build harmonious world through the unity of their formulas and much has benefited from it, they indeed reflected the beauty of Mathematics. They were all excellent mathematicians, and no doubt in it. But I admire John Napier for giving birth to Logarithms in the world of Mathematics. V. Mathematicians in the 17th Century Rene Descartes Birthdate: 31 March 1596 Died: 11 February 1650Nationality: French Contributions: * Accredited with the invention of co-ordinate geometry, the standard x,y co-ordinate system as the Cartesian plane. He developed the coordinate system as a â€Å"device to locate points on a plane†. The coordinate system includes two perpendicular lines. These lines are called axes. The vertical axis is designated as y axis while the horizontal axis is designated as the x axis. The intersection point of the two axes is called the origin or point zero. The position of any point on the plane can be located by locating how far perpendicularly from e ach axis the point lays.The position of the point in the coordinate system is specified by its two coordinates x and y. This is written as (x,y). * He is credited as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry, crucial to the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and analysis. * Descartes was also one of the key figures in the Scientific Revolution and has been described as an example of genius. * He also â€Å"pioneered the standard notation† that uses superscripts to show the powers or exponents; for example, the 4 used in x4 to indicate squaring of squaring. He â€Å"invented the convention of representing unknowns in equations by x, y, and z, and knowns by a, b, and c†. * He was first to assign a fundamental place for algebra in our system of knowledge, and believed that algebra was a method to automate or mechanize reasoning, particularly about abstract, unknown quantities. * Rene Descartes created analytic geometry, and discovered an early form of the law of conservation of momentum (the term momentum refers to the momentum of a force). * He developed a rule for determining the number of positive and negative roots in an equation.The Rule of Descartes as it is known states â€Å"An equation can have as many true [positive] roots as it contains changes of sign, from + to – or from – to +; and as many false [negative] roots as the number of times two + signs or two – signs are found in succession. † Bonaventura Francesco Cavalieri Birthdate: 1598 Died: November 30, 1647 Nationality: Italian Contributions: * He is known for his work on the problems of optics and motion. * Work on the precursors of infinitesimal calculus. * Introduction of logarithms to Italy. First book was Lo Specchio Ustorio, overo, Trattato delle settioni coniche, or The Burning Mirror, or a Treatise on Conic Sections. In this book he developed the theory of mirrors shaped into parabolas, hyperbolas, and ellipses, and various combinations of these mirrors. * Cavalieri developed a geometrical approach to calculus and published a treatise on the topic, Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum nova quadam ratione promota (Geometry, developed by a new method through the indivisibles of the continua, 1635).In this work, an area is considered as constituted by an indefinite number of parallel segments and a volume as constituted by an indefinite number of parallel planar areas. * Cavalieri's principle, which states that the volumes of two objects are equal if the areas of their corresponding cross-sections are in all cases equal. Two cross-sections correspond if they are intersections of the body with planes equidistant from a chosen base plane. * Published tables of logarithms, emphasizing their practical use in the fields of astronomy and geography.Pierre de Fermat Birthdate: 1601 or 1607/8 Died: 1665 Jan 12 Nationality: French Contributions: * Early developments that led to infinitesimal calculus, inc luding his technique of adequality. * He is recognized for his discovery of an original method of finding the greatest and the smallest ordinates of curved lines, which is analogous to that of the differential calculus, then unknown, and his research into number theory. * He made notable contributions to analytic geometry, probability, and optics. * He is best known for Fermat's Last Theorem. Fermat was the first person known to have evaluated the integral of general power functions. Using an ingenious trick, he was able to reduce this evaluation to the sum of geometric series. * He invented a factorization method—Fermat's factorization method—as well as the proof technique of infinite descent, which he used to prove Fermat's Last Theorem for the case n = 4. * Fermat developed the two-square theorem, and the polygonal number theorem, which states that each number is a sum of three triangular numbers, four square numbers, five pentagonal numbers, and so on. With his gif t for number relations and his ability to find proofs for many of his theorems, Fermat essentially created the modern theory of numbers. Blaise Pascal Birthdate: 19 June 1623 Died: 19 August 1662 Nationality: French Contributions: * Pascal's Wager * Famous contribution of Pascal was his â€Å"Traite du triangle arithmetique† (Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle), commonly known today as Pascal's triangle, which demonstrates many mathematical properties like binomial coefficients. Pascal’s Triangle At the age of 16, he formulated a basic theorem of projective geometry, known today as Pascal's theorem. * Pascal's law (a hydrostatics principle). * He invented the mechanical calculator. He built 20 of these machines (called Pascal’s calculator and later Pascaline) in the following ten years. * Corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science. * Pascal's theorem. It states that if a hexagon is inscribed in a circle (or conic) then the three intersection points of opposite sides lie on a line (called the Pascal line).Christiaan Huygens Birthdate: April 14, 1629 Died: July 8, 1695 Nationality: Dutch Contributions: * His work included early telescopic studies elucidating the nature of the rings of Saturn and the discovery of its moon Titan. * The invention of the pendulum clock. Spring driven pendulum clock, designed by Huygens. * Discovery of the centrifugal force, the laws for collision of bodies, for his role in the development of modern calculus and his original observations on sound perception. Wrote the first book on probability theory, De ratiociniis in ludo aleae (â€Å"On Reasoning in Games of Chance†). * He also designed more accurate clocks than were available at the time, suitable for sea navigation. * In 1673 he published his mathematical analysis of pendulums, Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu pendulorum, his greatest work on horology. I saac Newton Birthdate: 4 Jan 1643 Died: 31 March 1727 Nationality: English Contributions: * He laid the foundations for differential and integral calculus.Calculus-branch of mathematics concerned with the study of such concepts as the rate of change of one variable quantity with respect to another, the slope of a curve at a prescribed point, the computation of the maximum and minimum values of functions, and the calculation of the area bounded by curves. Evolved from algebra, arithmetic, and geometry, it is the basis of that part of mathematics called analysis. * Produced simple analytical methods that unified many separate techniques previously developed to solve apparently unrelated problems such as finding areas, tangents, the lengths of curves and the maxima and minima of functions. Investigated the theory of light, explained gravity and hence the motion of the planets. * He is also famed for inventing `Newtonian Mechanics' and explicating his famous three laws of motion. * The first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations * He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables) Newton's identities, also known as the Newton–Girard formulae, give relations between two types of symmetric polynomials, namely between power sums and elementary symmetric polynomials.Evaluated at the roots of a monic polynomial P in one variable, they allow expressing the sums of the k-th powers of all roots of P (counted with their multiplicity) in terms of the coefficients of P, without actually finding those roots * Newton's method (also known as the Newton–Raphson method), named after Isaac Newton and Joseph Raphson, is a method for finding successively better approximations to the roots (or zeroes) of a real-valued function. Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz Birthdate: July 1, 1646 Died: November 14, 1716 Nationality: GermanCont ributions: * Leibniz invented a mechanical calculating machine which would multiply as well as add, the mechanics of which were still being used as late as 1940. * Developed the infinitesimal calculus. * He became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. * He was the first to describe a pinwheel calculator in 1685[6] and invented the Leibniz wheel, used in the arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. * He also refined the binary number system, which is at the foundation of virtually all digital computers. Leibniz was the first, in 1692 and 1694, to employ it explicitly, to denote any of several geometric concepts derived from a curve, such as abscissa, ordinate, tangent, chord, and the perpendicular. * Leibniz was the first to see that the coefficients of a system of linear equations could be arranged into an array, now called a matrix, which can be manipulated to find the solution of the system. * He introduced several notations used to this day, for instance the integral sign ? representing an elongated S, from the Latin word summa and the d used for differentials, from the Latin word differentia.This cleverly suggestive notation for the calculus is probably his most enduring mathematical legacy. * He was the ? rst to use the notation f(x). * The notation used today in Calculus df/dx and ? f x dx are Leibniz notation. * He also did work in discrete mathematics and the foundations of logic. Favorite Mathematician Selecting favourite mathematician from these adept persons in mathematics is a hard task, but as I read the contributions of these Mathematicians, I found Sir Isaac Newton to be the greatest mathematician of this period.He invented the useful but difficult subject in mathematics- the calculus. I found him cooperative with different mathematician to derive useful formulas despite the fact that he is bright enough. Open-mindedness towards others opinion is what I discerned in him. VI. Mathematicians in the 18th Century Jacob Bernoulli Birthdate: 6 January 1655 Died: 16 August 1705 Nationality: Swiss Contributions: * Founded a school for mathematics and the sciences. * Best known for the work Ars Conjectandi (The Art of Conjecture), published eight years after his death in 1713 by his nephew Nicholas. Jacob Bernoulli's first important contributions were a pamphlet on the parallels of logic and algebra published in 1685, work on probability in 1685 and geometry in 1687. * Introduction of the theorem known as the law of large numbers. * By 1689 he had published important work on infinite series and published his law of large numbers in probability theory. * Published five treatises on infinite series between 1682 and 1704. * Bernoulli equation, y' = p(x)y + q(x)yn. * Jacob Bernoulli's paper of 1690 is important for the history of calculus, since the term integral appears for the first time with its integration meaning. Discovered a general method to determine evolutes of a curve as the envelope of its circles of curvature. He also investigated caustic curves and in particular he studied these associated curves of the parabola, the logarithmic spiral and epicycloids around 1692. * Theory of permutations and combinations; the so-called Bernoulli numbers, by which he derived the exponential series. * He was the first to think about the convergence of an infinite series and proved that the series   is convergent. * He was also the first to propose continuously compounded interest, which led him to investigate: Johan Bernoulli Birthdate: 27 July 1667Died: 1 January 1748 Nationality: Swiss Contributions: * He was a brilliant mathematician who made important discoveries in the field of calculus. * He is known for his contributions to infinitesimal calculus and educated Leonhard Euler in his youth. * Discovered fundamental principles of mechanics, and the laws of optics. * He discovered the Bernoulli series and made advances in theory of navigation and ship saili ng. * Johann Bernoulli proposed the brachistochrone problem, which asks what shape a wire must be for a bead to slide from one end to the other in the shortest possible time, as a challenge to other mathematicians in June 1696.For this, he is regarded as one of the founders of the calculus of variations. Daniel Bernoulli Birthdate: 8 February 1700 Died: 17 March 1782 Nationality: Swiss Contributions: * He is particularly remembered for his applications of mathematics to mechanics. * His pioneering work in probability and statistics. Nicolaus Bernoulli Birthdate: February 6, 1695 Died: July 31, 1726 Nationality: Swiss Contributions: †¢Worked mostly on curves, differential equations, and probability. †¢He also contributed to fluid dynamics. Abraham de Moivre Birthdate: 26 May 1667 Died: 27 November 1754 Nationality: French Contributions: Produced the second textbook on probability theory, The Doctrine of Chances: a method of calculating the probabilities of events in play. * Pioneered the development of analytic geometry and the theory of probability. * Gives the first statement of the formula for the normal distribution curve, the first method of finding the probability of the occurrence of an error of a given size when that error is expressed in terms of the variability of the distribution as a unit, and the first identification of the probable error calculation. Additionally, he applied these theories to gambling problems and actuarial tables. In 1733 he proposed the formula for estimating a factorial as n! = cnn+1/2e? n. * Published an article called Annuities upon Lives, in which he revealed the normal distribution of the mortality rate over a person’s age. * De Moivre’s formula: which he was able to prove for all positive integral values of n. * In 1722 he suggested it in the more well-known form of de Moivre's Formula: Colin Maclaurin Birthdate: February, 1698 Died: 14 June 1746 Nationality: Scottish Contributions: * Maclaurin used Taylor series to characterize maxima, minima, and points of inflection for infinitely differentiable functions in his Treatise of Fluxions. Made significant contributions to the gravitation attraction of ellipsoids. * Maclaurin discovered the Euler–Maclaurin formula. He used it to sum powers of arithmetic progressions, derive Stirling's formula, and to derive the Newton-Cotes numerical integration formulas which includes Simpson's rule as a special case. * Maclaurin contributed to the study of elliptic integrals, reducing many intractable integrals to problems of finding arcs for hyperbolas. * Maclaurin proved a rule for solving square linear systems in the cases of 2 and 3 unknowns, and discussed the case of 4 unknowns. Some of his important works are: Geometria Organica – 1720 * De Linearum Geometricarum Proprietatibus – 1720 * Treatise on Fluxions – 1742 (763 pages in two volumes. The first systematic exposition of Newton's methods. ) * Treatise on Al gebra – 1748 (two years after his death. ) * Account of Newton's Discoveries – Incomplete upon his death and published in 1750 or 1748 (sources disagree) * Colin Maclaurin was the name used for the new Mathematics and Actuarial Mathematics and Statistics Building at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh. Lenard Euler Birthdate: 15 April 1707 Died: 18 September 1783 Nationality: Swiss Contributions: He made important discoveries in fields as diverse as infinitesimal calculus and graph theory. * He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function. * He is also renowned for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, and astronomy. * Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions through his numerous and widely circulated textbooks. Most notably, he introduced the concept of a function [2] and was the first to write f(x) to denote the function f a pplied to the argument x. He also introduced the modern notation for the trigonometric functions, the letter e for the base of the natural logarithm (now also known as Euler's number), the Greek letter ? for summations and the letter i to denote the imaginary unit. * The use of the Greek letter ? to denote the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was also popularized by Euler. * Well known in analysis for his frequent use and development of power series, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such as * Euler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytic proofs. He discovered ways to express various logarithmic functions using power series, and he successfully defined logarithms for negative and complex numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope of mathematical applications of logarithms. * He also defined the exponential function for complex numbers, and discovered its relation to the trigonometric functions. * Elaborate d the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma function and introduced a new method for solving quartic equations. He also found a way to calculate integrals with complex limits, foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis.He also invented the calculus of variations including its best-known result, the Euler–Lagrange equation. * Pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems. * Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series, hyperbolic trigonometric functions and the analytic theory of continued fractions. For example, he proved the infinitude of primes using the divergence of the harmonic series, and he used analytic methods to gain some understanding of the way prime numbers are distributed. Euler's work in this area led to the development of the prime number theorem. He proved that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges. In doing so, he discovered the connection between the Riemann zeta f unction and the prime numbers; this is known as the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function. * He also invented the totient function ? (n) which is the number of positive integers less than or equal to the integer n that are coprime to n. * Euler also conjectured the law of quadratic reciprocity. The concept is regarded as a fundamental theorem of number theory, and his ideas paved the way for the work of Carl Friedrich Gauss. * Discovered the formula V ?E + F = 2 relating the number of vertices, edges, and faces of a convex polyhedron. * He made great strides in improving the numerical approximation of integrals, inventing what are now known as the Euler approximations. Jean Le Rond De Alembert Birthdate: 16 November 1717 Died: 29 October 1783 Nationality: French Contributions: * D'Alembert's formula for obtaining solutions to the wave equation is named after him. * In 1743 he published his most famous work, Traite de dynamique, in which he developed his own laws of mot ion. * He created his ratio test, a test to see if a series converges. The D'Alembert operator, which first arose in D'Alembert's analysis of vibrating strings, plays an important role in modern theoretical physics. * He made several contributions to mathematics, including a suggestion for a theory of limits. * He was one of the first to appreciate the importance of functions, and defined the derivative of a function as the limit of a quotient of increments. Joseph Louise Lagrange Birthdate: 25 January 1736 Died: 10 April 1813 Nationality: Italian French Contributions: * Published the ‘Mecanique Analytique' which is considered to be his monumental work in the pure maths. His most prominent influence was his contribution to the the metric system and his addition of a decimal base. * Some refer to Lagrange as the founder of the Metric System. * He was responsible for developing the groundwork for an alternate method of writing Newton's Equations of Motion. This is referred to as ‘Lagrangian Mechanics'. * In 1772, he described the Langrangian points, the points in the plane of two objects in orbit around their common center of gravity at which the combined gravitational forces are zero, and where a third particle of negligible mass can remain at rest. He made significant contributions to all fields of analysis, number theory, and classical and celestial mechanics. * Was one of the creators of the calculus of variations, deriving the Euler–Lagrange equations for extrema of functionals. * He also extended the method to take into account possible constraints, arriving at the method of Lagrange multipliers. * Lagrange invented the method of solving differential equations known as variation of parameters, applied differential calculus to the theory of probabilities and attained notable work on the solution of equations. * He proved that every natural number is a sum of four squares. Several of his early papers also deal with questions of number theo ry. 1. Lagrange (1766–1769) was the first to prove that Pell's equation has a nontrivial solution in the integers for any non-square natural number n. [7] 2. He proved the theorem, stated by Bachet without justification, that every positive integer is the sum of four squares, 1770. 3. He proved Wilson's theorem that n is a prime if and only if (n ? 1)! + 1 is always a multiple of n, 1771. 4. His papers of 1773, 1775, and 1777 gave demonstrations of several results enunciated by Fermat, and not previously proved. 5.His Recherches d'Arithmetique of 1775 developed a general theory of binary quadratic forms to handle the general problem of when an integer is representable by the form. Gaspard Monge Birthdate: May 9, 1746 Died: July 28, 1818 Nationality: French Contributions: * Inventor of descriptive geometry, the mathematical basis on which technical drawing is based. * Published the following books in mathematics: 1. The Art of Manufacturing Cannon (1793)[3] 2. Geometrie descri ptive. Lecons donnees aux ecoles normales (Descriptive Geometry): a transcription of Monge's lectures. (1799) Pierre Simon Laplace Birthdate: 23 March 1749Died: 5 March 1827 Nationality: French Contributions: * Formulated Laplace's equation, and pioneered the Laplace transform which appears in many branches of mathematical physics. * Laplacian differential operator, widely used in mathematics, is also named after him. * He restated and developed the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the solar system * Was one of the first scientists to postulate the existence of black holes and the notion of gravitational collapse. * Laplace made the non-trivial extension of the result to three dimensions to yield a more general set of functions, the spherical harmonics or Laplace coefficients. Issued his Theorie analytique des probabilites in which he laid down many fundamental results in statistics. * Laplace’s most important work was his Celestial Mechanics published in 5 volumes between 1798-1827. In it he sought to give a complete mathematical description of the solar system. * In Inductive probability, Laplace set out a mathematical system of inductive reasoning based on probability, which we would today recognise as Bayesian. He begins the text with a series of principles of probability, the first six being: 1.Probability is the ratio of the â€Å"favored events† to the total possible events. 2. The first principle assumes equal probabilities for all events. When this is not true, we must first determine the probabilities of each event. Then, the probability is the sum of the probabilities of all possible favored events. 3. For independent events, the probability of the occurrence of all is the probability of each multiplied together. 4. For events not independent, the probability of event B following event A (or event A causing B) is the probability of A multiplied by the probability that A and B both occur. 5.The probability that A will occur, given th at B has occurred, is the probability of A and B occurring divided by the probability of B. 6. Three corollaries are given for the sixth principle, which amount to Bayesian probability. Where event Ai ? {A1, A2, †¦ An} exhausts the list of possible causes for event B, Pr(B) = Pr(A1, A2, †¦ An). Then: * Amongst the other discoveries of Laplace in pure and applied mathematics are: 1. Discussion, contemporaneously with Alexandre-Theophile Vandermonde, of the general theory of determinants, (1772); 2. Proof that every equation of an even degree must have at least one real quadratic factor; 3.Solution of the linear partial differential equation of the second order; 4. He was the first to consider the difficult problems involved in equations of mixed differences, and to prove that the solution of an equation in finite differences of the first degree and the second order might always be obtained in the form of a continued fraction; and 5. In his theory of probabilities: 6. Evalua tion of several common definite integrals; and 7. General proof of the Lagrange reversion theorem. Adrian Marie Legendere Birthdate: 18 September 1752 Died: 10 January 1833 Nationality: French Contributions: Well-known and important concepts such as the Legendre polynomials. * He developed the least squares method, which has broad application in linear regression, signal processing, statistics, and curve fitting; this was published in 1806. * He made substantial contributions to statistics, number theory, abstract algebra, and mathematical analysis. * In number theory, he conjectured the quadratic reciprocity law, subsequently proved by Gauss; in connection to this, the Legendre symbol is named after him. * He also did pioneering work on the distribution of primes, and on the application of analysis to number theory. Best known as the author of Elements de geometrie, which was published in 1794 and was the leading elementary text on the topic for around 100 years. * He introduced wh at are now known as Legendre functions, solutions to Legendre’s differential equation, used to determine, via power series, the attraction of an ellipsoid at any exterior point. * Published books: 1. Elements de geometrie, textbook 1794 2. Essai sur la Theorie des Nombres 1798 3. Nouvelles Methodes pour la Determination des Orbites des Cometes, 1806 4. Exercices de Calcul Integral, book in three volumes 1811, 1817, and 1819 5.Traite des Fonctions Elliptiques, book in three volumes 1825, 1826, and 1830 Simon Dennis Poison Birthdate: 21 June 1781 Died: 25 April 1840 Nationality: French Contributions: * He published two memoirs, one on Etienne Bezout's method of elimination, the other on the number of integrals of a finite difference equation. * Poisson's well-known correction of Laplace's second order partial differential equation for potential: today named after him Poisson's equation or the potential theory equation, was first published in the Bulletin de la societe philomati que (1813). Poisson's equation for the divergence of the gradient of a scalar field, ? in 3-dimensional space: Charles Babbage Birthdate: 26 December 1791 Death: 18 October 1871 Nationality: English Contributions: * Mechanical engineer who originated the concept of a programmable computer. * Credited with inventing the first mechanical computer that eventually led to more complex designs. * He invented the Difference Engine that could compute simple calculations, like multiplication or addition, but its most important trait was its ability create tables of the results of up to seven-degree polynomial functions. Invented the Analytical Engine, and it was the first machine ever designed with the idea of programming: a computer that could understand commands and could be programmed much like a modern-day computer. * He produced a Table of logarithms of the natural numbers from 1 to 108000 which was a standard reference from 1827 through the end of the century. Favorite Mathematician No ticeably, Leonard Euler made a mark in the field of Mathematics as he contributed several concepts and formulas that encompasses many areas of Mathematics-Geometry, Calculus, Trigonometry and etc.He deserves to be praised for doing such great things in Mathematics, indeed, his work laid foundation to make the lives of the following generation sublime, ergo, He is my favourite mathematician. VII. Mathematicians in the 19th Century Carl Friedrich Gauss Birthdate: 30 April 1777 Died: 23 February 1855 Nationality: German Contributions: * He became the first to prove the quadratic reciprocity law. * Gauss also made important contributions to number theory with his 1801 book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (Latin, Arithmetical Investigations), which, among things, introduced the symbol ? or congruence and used it in a clean presentation of modular arithmetic, contained the first two proofs of the law of quadratic reciprocity, developed the theories of binary and ternary quadratic forms, state d the class number problem for them, and showed that a regular heptadecagon (17-sided polygon) can be constructed with straightedge and compass. * He developed a method of measuring the horizontal intensity of the magnetic field which was in use well into the second half of the 20th century, and worked out the mathematical theory for separating the inner and outer (magnetospheric) sources of Earth's magnetic field.Agustin Cauchy Birthdate: 21 August 1789 Died: 23 May 1857 Nationality: French Contributions: * His most notable research was in the theory of residues, the question of convergence, differential equations, theory of functions, the legitimate use of imaginary numbers, operations with determinants, the theory of equations, the theory of probability, and the applications of mathematics to physics. * His writings introduced new standards of rigor in calculus from which grew the modern field of analysis.In Cours d’analyse de l’Ecole Polytechnique (1821), by develo ping the concepts of limits and continuity, he provided the foundation for calculus essentially as it is today. * He introduced the â€Å"epsilon-delta definition for limits (epsilon for â€Å"error† and delta for â€Å"difference’). * He transformed the theory of complex functions by discovering integral theorems and introducing the calculus of residues. * Cauchy founded the modern theory of elasticity by applying the notion of pressure on a plane, and assuming that this pressure was no longer perpendicular to the plane upon which it acts in an elastic body.In this way, he introduced the concept of stress into the theory of elasticity. * He also examined the possible deformations of an elastic body and introduced the notion of strain. * One of the most prolific mathematicians of all time, he produced 789 mathematics papers, including 500 after the age of fifty. * He had sixteen concepts and theorems named for him, including the Cauchy integral theorem, the Cauchy-Sc hwartz inequality, Cauchy sequence and Cauchy-Riemann equations. He defined continuity in terms of infinitesimals and gave several important theorems in complex analysis and initiated the study of permutation groups in abstract algebra. * He started the project of formulating and proving the theorems of infinitesimal calculus in a rigorous manner. * He was the first to define complex numbers as pairs of real numbers. * Most famous for his single-handed development of complex function theory.The first pivotal theorem proved by Cauchy, now known as Cauchy's integral theorem, was the following: where f(z) is a complex-valued function holomorphic on and within the non-self-intersecting closed curve C (contour) lying in the complex plane. * He was the first to prove Taylor's theorem rigorously. * His greatest contributions to mathematical science are enveloped in the rigorous methods which he introduced; these are mainly embodied in his three great treatises: 1. Cours d'analyse de l'Ecol e royale polytechnique (1821) 2. Le Calcul infinitesimal (1823) 3.Lecons sur les applications de calcul infinitesimal; La geometrie (1826–1828) Nicolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky Birthdate: December 1, 1792 Died: February 24, 1856 Nationality: Russian Contributions: * Lobachevsky's great contribution to the development of modern mathematics begins with the fifth postulate (sometimes referred to as axiom XI) in Euclid's Elements. A modern version of this postulate reads: Through a point lying outside a given line only one line can be drawn parallel to the given line. * Lobachevsky's geometry found application in the theory of complex numbers, the theory of vectors, and the theory of relativity. Lobachevskii's deductions produced a geometry, which he called â€Å"imaginary,† that was internally consistent and harmonious yet different from the traditional one of Euclid. In 1826, he presented the paper â€Å"Brief Exposition of the Principles of Geometry with Vigorous Proofs o f the Theorem of Parallels. † He refined his imaginary geometry in subsequent works, dating from 1835 to 1855, the last being Pangeometry. * He was well respected in the work he developed with the theory of infinite series especially trigonometric series, integral calculus, and probability. In 1834 he found a method for approximating the roots of an algebraic equation. * Lobachevsky also gave the definition of a function as a correspondence between two sets of real numbers. Johann Peter Gustav Le Jeune Dirichlet Birthdate: 13 February 1805 Died: 5 May 1859 Nationality: German Contributions: * German mathematician with deep contributions to number theory (including creating the field of analytic number theory) and to the theory of Fourier series and other topics in mathematical analysis. * He is credited with being one of the first mathematicians to give the modern formal definition of a function. Published important contributions to the biquadratic reciprocity law. * In 1837 h e published Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions, using mathematical analysis concepts to tackle an algebraic problem and thus creating the branch of analytic number theory. * He introduced the Dirichlet characters and L-functions. * In a couple of papers in 1838 and 1839 he proved the first class number formula, for quadratic forms. * Based on his research of the structure of the unit group of quadratic fields, he proved the Dirichlet unit theorem, a fundamental result in algebraic number theory. He first used the pigeonhole principle, a basic counting argument, in the proof of a theorem in diophantine approximation, later named after him Dirichlet's approximation theorem. * In 1826, Dirichlet proved that in any arithmetic progression with first term coprime to the difference there are infinitely many primes. * Developed significant theorems in the areas of elliptic functions and applied analytic techniques to mathematical theory that resulted in the fundamental developme nt of number theory. * His lectures on the equilibrium of systems and potential theory led to what is known as the Dirichlet problem.It involves finding solutions to differential equations for a given set of values of the boundary points of the region on which the equations are defined. The problem is also known as the first boundary-value problem of potential theorem. Evariste Galois Birthdate: 25 October 1811 Death: 31 May 1832 Nationality: French Contributions: * His work laid the foundations for Galois Theory and group theory, two major branches of abstract algebra, and the subfield of Galois connections. * He was the first to use the word â€Å"group† (French: groupe) as a technical term in mathematics to represent a group of permutations. Galois published three papers, one of which laid the foundations for Galois Theory. The second one was about the numerical resolution of equations (root finding in modern terminology). The third was an important one in number theory, i n which the concept of a finite field was first articulated. * Galois' mathematical contributions were published in full in 1843 when Liouville reviewed his manuscript and declared it sound. It was finally published in the October–November 1846 issue of the Journal de Mathematiques Pures et Appliquees. 16] The most famous contribution of this manuscript was a novel proof that there is no quintic formula – that is, that fifth and higher degree equations are not generally solvable by radicals. * He also introduced the concept of a finite field (also known as a Galois field in his honor), in essentially the same form as it is understood today. * One of the founders of the branch of algebra known as group theory. He developed the concept that is today known as a normal subgroup. * Galois' most significant contribution to mathematics by far is his development of Galois Theory.He realized that the algebraic solution to a polynomial equation is related to the structure of a g roup of permutations associated with the roots of the polynomial, the Galois group of the polynomial. He found that an equation could be solved in radicals if one can find a series of subgroups of its Galois group, each one normal in its successor with abelian quotient, or its Galois group is solvable. This proved to be a fertile approach, which later mathematicians adapted to many other fields of mathematics besides the theory of equations to which Galois orig